‘Black Skin, White Masks’ is the title of Frantz Fanon’s world-renowned book on racism, dehumanisation and the psychological impacts of assimilation on the oppressed. Although it was written over 70 years ago, the book tackles cultural issues still present today in oppressed communities around the world.
What is cultural assimilation and what face does it take today? Simply put, when different ethnic communities are absorbed into their society’s dominant culture, individuals often find themselves grappling between the pressures to conform and the freedom of cultural expression. It is usually characterised by people trying to ‘fit in’ to societal norms through language, behaviour and traditions. This can lead to a loss or change in their cultural identity, alienating them from friends and family, their heritage and even part of themselves. Although less pronounced nowadays, cultural assimilation continues to plague the lives of immigrants, suppress indigenous traditions and restrict religious freedom worldwide.
For example, many migrants to Western countries feel the need to change their names, accents or even appearance to be accepted. Unfortunately, the apparent need for a facade has its own issues; loneliness and social isolation is becoming increasingly prevalent among first-generation migrants, with almost a quarter in Europe declare feeling ‘severely lonely’ (Oxford Academic, 2024). There is also the issue with language. Not only do first generation immigrants often suffer from language barriers affecting their career or studies but second and third generation immigrants can experience something called ‘Shared Language Erosion’. This is a common phenomena in countries like the UK and the US where the younger generations mainly learn English at school. Then, usually by the time they enter adolescence, the majority will have developed a preference for English as it is ubiquitous in their lives: friends, teachers, and the curriculum. At the same time, their parents’ English skills likely will not have improved much, leading to strained communication and the loss of their native language.
In the past, cultural assimilation took a more coercive form; especially in colonised territories. In particular, the French government promoted this concept to their colonies throughout Africa during the 19th and 20th centuries, claiming that by adopting French culture and language, one would be granted the rights of a French citizen. However, although many Africans living under colonial rule acquiesced in light of survival, most French administrations denied them basic rights as they were still considered ‘full-blooded Africans’. Initially, some high-ranking officials rejected assimilation; notably, Napoleon Bonaparte, who believed that colonies should be governed under separate rules, but most ended up advocating for it to spread French culture. For example, the Four Communes of Senegal was an example of the idea of ‘converting’ African natives to Frenchmen through education and a change in environment, leading to Gorée, Dakar, Rufisque, and Saint-Louis being the only places during the African Colonial period where the inhabitants were granted equal rights as French citizens.
How did they achieve this? Through a combination of intense culture assimilation, an influx of French settlers and substantial socio-economic barriers, these Four Communes were drastically transformed. Daily life in these four cities even resembled Parisian life, in terms of architecture, lifestyle, and economic and political structures. Nevertheless, this opulent facade masked the struggles still faced by the Senegalese living there, called Originaires. They still faced limitations on their rights, career advancements and were prohibited from celebrating their African heritage (languages and culture) while having to uphold rigorous French social expectations. Ultimately, because of prolonged exposure to assimilation, the Originaires became ‘typical French citizens … he was expected to be everything except in the color of his skin, a Frenchman’.
Over time, this process of cultural ‘cleansing’ can be detrimental to a society. In the case of African colonies, it equated the image of blackness with impurity and inferiority, how it was better to be born white and live in a white community. Assimilation prevents individuals from developing an independent sense of identity or even being proud of their origins, eventually forced to accept that they are unable to embrace their own culture but also cannot be ‘white’. In ‘Black Skin, White Masks’, Fanon examines the damaging effects of such systematic racism and was the first to point out its psychological impacts. The problem with black individuals wearing a ‘white mask’ to navigate a society that values whiteness is that the constant stress from cultural fragmentation can lead to severe mental health issues:
- Self Loathing – Fanon argued that for colonised people, many are born with a sense of inferiority because of the status quo imposed by Western powers. ‘The black man has no culture, no civilization, no long historical past’ is the colonial myth embedded in many Africans.
- Double Consciousness – Here, Fanon explores W.E.B. Du Bois’ idea; Cultural assimilation leads to a split identity: a psychological conflict between an individual’s original cultural identity and the Western identity they feel compelled to adopt.
- Depression, rage and helplessness – As a trained psychiatrist, Fanon also outlined many consequences of systematic dehumanisation that are less evident. This video summarises these ideas perfectly.
What can we learn from this? Although the problem of cultural assimilation is deep-rooted and still exists today around the world, we have advanced immensely since the period of colonisation and the 1950s, when Fanon wrote ‘Black Skin, White Masks’. Events such as Black History Month encourage individuals to express themselves freely and celebrate diverse cultures and traditions. All in all, more education on this topic is needed for society to be all-inclusive and to understand people’s hidden struggles.
Bibliography:
ten Kate, R.L.F., Bilecen, B. and Steverink, N. (2020). A Closer Look at Loneliness: Why Do First-Generation Migrants Feel More Lonely Than Their Native Dutch Counterparts? The Gerontologist, [online] 60(2). doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnz192.
Nguyen, T.P., Al Asaad, M., Sena, M. and Slewa-Younan, S. (2024). Loneliness and social isolation amongst refugees resettled in high-income countries: a systematic review. Social Science & Medicine, 360(1), p.117340. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117340.
Anon, (2022). Shared Language Erosion May Hold the Key to an Age-old Paradox to Help Immigrant Families Live Happier, Healthier Lives – Oklahoma State University. [online] Available at: https://extension.okstate.edu/announcements/family-and-consumer-sciences-newsletters/feb-fcs-newsletter-2022.html.
Toure, M.-K. (2009). Four communes of senegal (1887-1960) •. [online] Blackpast. Available at: https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/four-communes-senegal-1887-1960/.
Wikipedia Contributors (2018). Assimilation (French colonialism). [online] Wikipedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assimilation_(French_colonialism).
Foreman, T. (2018). W.E.B. Du Bois’ ‘Strivings of the Negro People,’ Animated – The Atlantic – The Atlantic. [online] http://www.theatlantic.com. Available at: https://www.theatlantic.com/video/index/554972/web-dubois-striving-negro/.
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